- Applied linguistics: when it was first founded it limited itself to teaching and learning lge only. But after, it main purpose is to solve problems of lge, its not limoted to lge teaching anymore, it deals with lge problems in other fields, communication for example.
- we can sistinguish between first lge aquisition in terms of:
- Geography, order, dominace: the dominant lge will be learnt first.
- Deference between acquisition and learning:
-acquisition: is an unconscious process(most of the time), natural process.
- learning: is a formal set, and most of the time is a conscious process and takes place in a formal sitting.
In the process of learning lge there are dtages tgat children follow:
1- the bumbling stage. 2- one word stage. 3- two words stage.
- theories: reinforcement theory/ behaviorism theory: watson, skinner.
Mentalist theory: N. chomsky. Cognitive tgeory: piaget.
- behaviorists worked on animals. They made experements on animals and try to aply the findings on human beings. Behaviorism is a word view that opporite on the principles of stimulus. All behavior is paused by an external stimulus response( stimulus+ response+ reinforcement+ habit formation.) according to behaviorists lge is a behavior.
- blank slate "tabula rasa" = it means that the mind is like a white paper. When we say that humans have a blank slate it doesnt mean only about lge its also about behavior. It can be fell with whatever is learnt in the envirenment.
Stimulus( what makes the child produce an utterance): wanting to play- he want candy.
Response: heat- slapt
Reinforcement( imidiat feedback):( feedback which can be negative or positive): the pain- negative slapt
Habit formation: he will not do it again- he will not cry to get something again.
- according to skinner lge behavior is tge production of correct responces trough reinforcement: which can be positive or negative.
1- positive reinforcement results in the increase of repetition process.
2- negative reinforcement results in the reduction of repetitiong process.
- imitation: when u see/hear something and u produce something to it.
- repetition followed by practice= starts to use what he has imitated.
- according to skinner lge is learnt trough imitation, practice, repetition, habit formation.
- when we takk about lge acquisition all children master their first lge, tgey reach mastery of their mother lge.
- children are born without any linguistic knowldge, so all lge learning is the result of the envirenment. Children react to lge stimuly with responses. If their responses are correct they are reinforced and they become habitual. Rewarded behavior results it increases friquincy of behavior. The behavior is weekened and eventualy estinguished when it evokes panishement or is completly ignorant.
- usualy the parents correct the meaning of the sentence but not the gramatical mistake of the sentence. When parents correct children's grammar, it has no effect on the lge
- the child should achieve a specific thinking level to produce specific level of lge.
- children produce novel utterances( new utterances) that they have never heard before. Which goes against the imitation theory.
- the mentalist theory: chomsky
In lge we can distinguish between : performance which mean how we performe and use the lge in the real life. And competencewhich meab the linguistic roules that we have in our mind about a specific lge.
- the reinforcement theory problem is that the distinction between the performance and competence is not realy clear.
- the innatness theory: mentalist theory( chomsky).
- all lges share a certain fundamental properties that allow children to become fluent speakers of their first lge.
Chomsky: universal grammar: there are certain features that lges share.
-LAD: lge acquistiong device is a genetic divice that all humans(children) are born with. Small children are biologecally capable of learning lge ( predisposed to learn lge). This inate capacity that the choldren have allow them to aquire lge biologicaly and not socialy. Children live in a world of lge so they are likely to learn it becuz of some internal factors that make them learn.
- How does this LAD works:
Every child lives in an invirenment, in this invirenment the child has access to structures from his lge. They triger this LAD, he acquires those structures by creating associations by the structures of LAD and structures of lge. LAD is activated when children listen to structures of his lge and compares those structures with what he has in his mind. Children need access only to samples of a natural lge which serve as a triger to activate the LAD. Once the device is activated, children discover the structure of the lge to be learnt by matching the inate knowldge of the structure to the structures of the particular lge in the envirenment. According to chomsky, what a child needs to learn lge is the LAD and a world of lge.
- everybody learns lge not becuz of the subject conditioning proces but rather becuz thet possess a biological capacity to learn lge.
- children master there first lge in a very short time inspite of the highly obstructs nature of linguistic roules
- the theory of chomsky has some weekness becuz it ignored the role of envirenment in the process of learning.
Chomsky's theory has many advantages:
- it explains that lge is human specific= only humans use lge to communicate. Animals use signs or other things but not lge.
- it explains how small children can produce novel utterances that they have never heard .
- the critical period hypothesis(cph) in relation to chomsky's theory: it says that after the age of two if the child didnot learn a lge, he will never learn any lge at all
- after the age of pubarty a child can not learn a second lge with the smae native like mastery. Before the age of pubarty a child can master 3 lge. After the age of pubarty the learner can never reach the native mastery of tge.
This theory explain how children from all around the world aquire their first lge in the same way so that at tge age of ; or5 the child achieve mastery of his first lge.
- there is akind of universality in lge acquisition. There are things that are similar for all children they follow the same stages when learning their lge.
- chomsky's theory did not pay attention to the deverent stages of developement of lge acquisition. It concentrated more on the lge produced by children when they master lge, but he didnt study the deferent stages during the lge acquisition of the child ( the developement of the child acquisition of his first lge). Second this theory discards the social role . The society's tole was ignored in relation to the developement of the childs acquisition of this lge.
- the interactionist theory:
= according to the interactionist theory, lge is the result of the interplay between the inate learning ability of children and the invirenment in which they are brought up.
These sycologists attribute more importance to the invirenment that the inatests although, they can not ignore the role of the human mind.
The intetaction between the child and invirenment allows him to learn lge(to aquire lge) that socialisation process it what helps the child to speak his first lge.
- vigolsky: the conversation between the child and others( adults/ children) which helps him to acquire lge, he conseders the production of lge just one part in the cognitive development of the child. The cognitive development of a child has many things not only lge acquisition. If the child doesnot reach a cognitive development he will not reach a mastery of lge.
- the first lge: means the native lge or the mother tongue.
- second lge : any lge other than the first lge learnt. It is a lge learnt after the first lge in a context where the lge is used widely in the speacg community. It has a an institutional role in speech community.
- foriegn lge: is a second or 3rd or 4th: lge learnt in context where the lge is not widely used in the speech community. It doesnt have an institutional role in speech community.
French plays an institutional and functional role in the moroccan sociaty so it can be consedered as a second lge.
- when we talk about the deference between 1st lge acquisition and 2ed lge learning we should deal with:
The learner charactiristics and the learning conditions.
- 1st lge acquisition is an unconscious informal process = necessary children
-2nd lge learning is a conscious and formal lge= children or adults. The learner has a prior lge ( he already knows a lge). The learners of 2nd lge are more mature( cognitive maturity)
- Learning Vs acquisition:
-acquisition: is a subconscious and natural learning of lge, becuz of the interactions in a natural invirenment between peaple.(informal) . It is like we have a knowldge about the rules but this knowldge is unconscious. It is an implicit process which is associated with children ( small children). And we talk about children they all achieve mastery and they can speak it perfectly. While acquiring a lge children are active they listen and respond at the same time, they use lge in deferent situations. Children Guess the rule and then they aply it. Acquisition for small children is one of their basic needs for survival, they learn to speak the same as they learn to walk and eat.the child has no prior knowldge and Perfect mastery of the lge is guaranteed.
- learning: it is a conscious and explicit process of learning in which the learner is not completly involved. In this case the learning is passive, the teacher gives instructions and talks more than the students. And usage of the lge is limited to the class room. In this case the learner is given the rules, he learns the rules first and than he aplies it. The students focus more on the grammatical rules, and the role of the teacher is very important in giving instructions. Learners of 2nd lge are usualy corrected( immediat feedback). The reason why people learn a lge varies from situation to anther( work, intergration,etc.) in this case the learner has a prior knowldge about his 1st lge. One of the mistakes the learners commit in the first stages of learning the 2nd lge is that they rely too much on his 1st lge , he transfers the knowldge of the 1st lge to the 2nd. And here is it unlikely to achieve mastery of the 2nd lge.
- similarities:
All learners make errors.
Some aspects are learnt before others
Learners figure out the rules
Comprehention proceeds production
_ krashen --> natural approach.
Krachen's model of 2nd lge acquisition ( learning), he devoloped 5 hypothesis:
1- the acquisition learnig hypothesis: when devoloping tge ability, the learner has two deferent systems the acquired and the learned system.
- the acquired system: the unconscious learning of lge( subconscious), according to krashen the acquired system is better interlized than the learned system: becuz the focus is more on communication( fluency). Krashen thinks tht teachers should provide student with authentic materials: such as listening to audios, watching videos,..etc.
- the learned system: refers to lge which id learned consciously, formaly and by following instructions. when we talk about learning there's the focus on the form, the grammar as well as following instructions. focuses more on the form than communication( accuracy). according to krashen to devolope the acquiring system, teachers should encourage students to participated inside the class room And involve authentic materials, which will help students to acquire lge instead of just learning it.
- it was said that there is no scientific proof that the two systems work separatly, and that it was hard slso to proof that they were stored separatly.
2- the monitor hypothesis:
The output is what the learner is producing( speaking skills and the writting skils)
The input: teacher's instruction, reading, listening..
- when we are about to produce something, the output is monitored or checked.
A linguiatic expression that originates in the system of acquired knowldge, but prior to output on monitor which checkes it against known rules and may modify the expression. This monitor works widely when writting. For the monitor to operate there should be : time( u dont pay attention when u have short time, so the condition of time is important) + knowldge of the rules( if u dont know the rule how can u aply it) + focus on the form(in communication u will not focus on how it is said but what was said)
==> there are variations among users of tge monitor:
- the over users of the monitor: peoplde who pay much attention to what they write snd what they say. Perfectionists : they want to be perfect, it is believed that they lack selfconfidence.
- under users of the monitor: those who prefer not to use the conscious knowldge of lge. They dont focus on the form, fluency is more important for them.
- optimal users: refers to the ones who use lge appropriately.
- the monitor hypothesis inside the class: the teacher should strick balance between fluency and accuracy. For example: if the activity is fluency based, the teacher should focus more on communication and ideas more that on accuracy.
The monitor hypo was critisized= it was said that it is difficult to proof how the monitor works, so the hypothesis was consedered to be vide and not precise.
3- the natural order hypothesis:
It is believed that the learners learn some rules before others, mybe becuz of their complexity: learning the easy ones and then step by step towards the complex ones. The rules are acquired in a certain order. Some grammTical structures are learnt first while othets are learnt later. It is not related to the age of the learner each one will learn in a specific order.
- the natural order hypo inside the class room: the teacher should always take into conssederation the learners level in order create and provide easy lge items and move step by step towards more comlicated things.
4- the input hypothesis:
Humans acquire in only one way, by understanding msgs or by receiving comprehensible input. The learner should receive the 2nd lge input that is one step beyong his current stage of his linguistic competence. That is to say if the learner is at stage"i" the acquisition should take place when the learner is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to the level "i+1", which means that the mTeriAl should be challenging for the learner.
Inside the class room, thr teacher should provide authentic materials to learner one step beyond his level.
5- the affective filter hypothesis:
The sycological factors related to the personnality of the learner. Such as anxiety - motivation - selfconfidence.
- there are two types of anxiety: 1- facilitative anxiety= which means the positive anxiety and 2- debelitating anxiety = which means the negative anxiety.
- motivation: internal and external: a motivated learner can learn better.
- a learner with low level of anxiety and high level of motivation and high level of selfconfidence does better or learn better when acquiring a second lge. The affective factors facilitate the learning process depending on the learners personality. Which make them a very important factors.
The classroom should be a very worm envirenment in which the learner participate without fear of making mistakes.
- Learner's Errors.
- errors dont mean failure to learn, but rather it is a sign that someone is learning, a sign of the learning process. Errors refer to the systimatic deviations that the learner make when producing a lge
- constractibe analysis : making comparison between L1 and L2, and it was influenced by structrulism in which it tried to compare between two lges by describinh L1 and L2 by using structrulism methods that is to say to determine similarities and deferences between the two lges and than it becomes easy to predict Errors. It was also influenced by behaviorism which says that learning lge is a matter of habit formation, that is to say that behaviors that are rewarded and reinforced becomes habits, but behaviors that are nor rewarded neither reinforced are excluded.
- learners that share the same mothet tongue are likely to produce the same mistakes.
- positive transfer: refers to cases in which L1 and L2 share many linguistic items. When the linguistic featured are similar between the two lges, learning will be facilitated.
- negative transfer: when there is a huge defference between L1 and L2. Learning is going to be hard and Learners are likely to produce errors.
- contructive analysis = comparing = describing = determine similarities and deferences = predict Errors.
- not all errors are due to transfer. The constructive analysis ignored other types of mistakes, it was not able to predict all types of errors. Thats why the Error analysis was found.
- the error analysis: it starts from the mistakes that the learners make and tried to determine the sourse of the error.it aims to findout the troublesome and provide solutions. Thats why it is said that it is a scientific orientation and the constructive analysis is pedagogic orientation. It aims to explain the systimatic nature of deviations that learners generate in 2nd lge.
- Errors analysis Methodology;
1- collection of data: the way reseachers use collected errors that L2 learners make.
2- identification of Errors: identify the errors that the learners make.
3- description and explanation:
4- evaluation: to provide remedy and solutions to the errors made.
- learners make errors that are due with their L1: Interlingual errors at the level of phonoloy, syntax and semantic( doea not provide the same meaning after the transfer)
Intralingual: when learners make errors that are due with their 2nd lge. For ex: overgeneralization.
Errors analysis:
1- presystimatic error: making the error before knowing the rule,
2- systimatic error: produce errors when learners aply the wrong rule.
3-postsystimatic errors: errors that learners produce when they know the rule , they are mistakes.
- Error analyss is beneficial for teachers, learners and researchers:
Fro learners: it provides the linguistic necessary devices to discover the rules.
For teachers: it helps the teacher to provide necessary feedback and follow the learners progress.
For reseachers: it provides them with thar necessary data to know the sourse of theError.
- the interlanguage theory: it is a linguistic system of the rules which is not similar neither to L1 nor to L2. It defers from one individual To anther, the more one studies the more he gets closer to L2. It has rules and properties that are neither similar to L1 nor to L2. It is neither the system of the native lge nor the system of the target lge, but instead it falls between the two. It is a system based uopon the best attept of learners to provide order and structure to the input or linguistic stimuly surounding them. By a gradual process of trial and error hypothesis testing, learners slowly gets closer and closer to the target lge or the system of the native speaker. The more progress the learners make the less errors the commit.
- the learner construct a system of abstruct linguistic rules of comprehention and production of L2, this system of rules is called mental Grammar and it is referd to as an interlanguage. It is transitional which means that the learners change their Grammar by adding rules, by making progress in L2, the more progress you make the closer you get to L2. In other rules the interlanguage is not stable, there are certain rules that added and others that are omited or changed.
- according to Skinner only5% of learners go on to devolope the same mental grammar as the native speakers, and that most of the learners become fossilized or frozen, which means that they achieve a certain stage and that they can go beyond it.
-The learning stratigies:
- transfer: borrow rules from L1 and apply them on L2
- overgenerelization: when the learners uses the target lge rules in situation in which tge native speakers dont.
- simplification: the learners use or produce an interlanguage which is similar to the one of children or pigin.( lge which is not fully devoloped.
- affective factors: - the emotional side of tge human behavior: it is more related to feelings, t does influence the learning process, or more exactly, these factors influence the learning outcomes. It includes motivation, anxiety, selfconfidence, attitude.
- learners with positive affective factors are likely to learn rapidly a lge. For wxample learner who are hightly motivated succeed better.
1- how to define success.
2-it is defficult to observe and mesure these affective factors.
3- we can not talk about each factor independently without talking about the other.
When the affective filter is lower, it becomes easier to assimilate tge output. Can regarded as a barier in learning.
If the affective filter is high the learner is not motivated enough. Ands if the affective is low tge leraner is hightly motivated.
The teacher must take into consederation the emotional side of the student and try to provide a positive feedback.
1-self confidence: according to brown 2000 it refers to the "personnal judgement of worthness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individuals hold toward themselfs". It means/expresses an attitude of aproval or disaproval and indicate the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, worthy and successful. It refers to the selfimage of how each person sees himself. The image maybe positive or negative).
- general confidence: and it refers to an appraisal over time, it is not related to a specific skill or siyuation, it is rather related to all situations.
- situational confidence: it means that the learner is confident in some situations and he is not others. It is related to some situations.
-tadk confidence: it refers to particular tasks within a specific situation. It is believed that selfconfident learners with positive selfimage succeed more, they dare to communicate, participate in the class room, to take risks. They are likely to gain more knowldge. While those who lack selfconfidence are most of the time affraid of making mistakes and losing face.
- succssful lge learning only takes place in an invirenment where lthe learner's values and positive attitudes are promoted, and where learners aproach learning with confidence and joy, and where learners can use the target lge at ease. Therefor, teachers should spare no efort to create conditions that can be conducive to studens selfconfidence.
2- Attitudes: are both affective and cognitive, they are related to both emotions, feelings and thoughts. They can be influenced by parentd and the interactions with people with deferent backgrounds. A negative attitude toward L2 is likely to lesser the learners motivation to learn it. Positive attitude toward L3 encourage the learning of the lge. It influences class participation: learners with positive attitude performe actively classroom.
According to brown 2000, " form a pat of one's perception of the self and others, anf of the culture in which one is living.
3- motivation: it refers to "the process arousing and sustaining regulating intrest in an activily to satisfy a need" brown 2002.
It refers to the combination of efferts and desire to achieve the goal of learning the lge: the desire is not enough to succeed it should be combined by efforts to achieve it.
- instrumental morivation: to use/learn lge to achieve a specific goal. In other words, learners are interessted in L2 becus they want to achieve a specific aim. They lge ad an instrument.
2- integrative motivation: learn the lge to integrate in a specific culture( mainly the culture of L2). They become involved in the social interchange of that lge.
It is said that the student that have neither the instrumental motivation nor the integrative motivation, will face linguistic problems in learning L2.
- there also other types of motivation:
1- intrensic motivation: refers to the interesst to do and take part in certain activities becuz the learners are interessted in the activity. it is more related to the activity done. Enjoying the activity or the skill, makes one more interessted in it and in doing it.
2- extrensic motivation: refers to the students interesst in the activity, it is not related to the activity itself. For example: reward, to avoid panishement,or to please the parents). It is believed that it is more interessted that the intensiv motivation.
- teachers should motivate students in the classroom by varinh the activities, tasks, materials. And he should take into consederation the age and level.
2-using operative rather than competitive goals to increase both selfconfidence and motivation.
3- creating a supportive and non-treathing atmosphere.
4-teachers should have appositive emotional will being of the learners or students.
-Anxiety: it is associated with feeling of frustration, selfdoupt, apprehension or easyness when learning a lge, brown 1994. Any task that involves a certain degree of chalenge can expose the learner to selfdoupt uneasyness or fair. In fact, second lge learning is demending task that is when it is likely to raise anxiety.
1- trate anxiety: refers to permanent predisposition to be anxieous.
2-stateAnxiety: refers to momentary or situational anxiety( related to certain situation). It has been argued that noy all Anxiety is bad, and certain amount of tension can have positive effecrt and even falicitate learning.
- seconf lge learners anxiety is due to their compititive nature. They tend to become anxieous when they compare themselfs the other learners and found themselfs less proficient. Anxiety will dicrease when they percieve themselfs becoming more proficient and therefor better able to compete.
- the role of the teacher: he should be able to promote facilitative anxiety, providevpositive feedback and creatvnon-threating envirenment.
- implications:
- communicative competence:
- Chomsky:
- performance: actualization of the competence, it is the actual use of lge.
- competence: is that abstract knowldge of an ideal speaker-listener has in a homogeneous community. It refers to the knwldge of the linguistic rules= it includrd phonology- morphology- syntactic.
Chomsky was critisized:
Hynes= according to him there is no such ideal speaker-listener, according to hunes alsobthere is no homogeneous community- all communities are heterogeneous. He said that the linguistic competence is not enough and that we should have alsova social context in where the lge is used. A sociolinguistic knowldge includes the knowldge of some sociolinguistic situations: we should take into consederation the sociolinguistic variables, the setting for example.
-Canade and swini= in relation to lge teaching:
- according to them communicative competence shoulde include four types of communicative competence that the learner should know:
1- the grammatical competence: it is similar to what hynes call linguistic competence it is related to knowldge about grammatical and syntactic structure of lge.
2- sociolonguistic competence: it refers to the knowldge about linguistic variables of the second language. It means the ability to use lge in deferent social ontext.
3-Discourse competence: it complementd the grammatical competence, and it takes into consederation the production of coherent text.
4- strategic competence: it was consedered the most competence to define becuz it takes into consederation the verbal strategies used for break downs in communication.
2nd lge learners should have all this components.
- we can sistinguish between first lge aquisition in terms of:
- Geography, order, dominace: the dominant lge will be learnt first.
- Deference between acquisition and learning:
-acquisition: is an unconscious process(most of the time), natural process.
- learning: is a formal set, and most of the time is a conscious process and takes place in a formal sitting.
In the process of learning lge there are dtages tgat children follow:
1- the bumbling stage. 2- one word stage. 3- two words stage.
- theories: reinforcement theory/ behaviorism theory: watson, skinner.
Mentalist theory: N. chomsky. Cognitive tgeory: piaget.
- behaviorists worked on animals. They made experements on animals and try to aply the findings on human beings. Behaviorism is a word view that opporite on the principles of stimulus. All behavior is paused by an external stimulus response( stimulus+ response+ reinforcement+ habit formation.) according to behaviorists lge is a behavior.
- blank slate "tabula rasa" = it means that the mind is like a white paper. When we say that humans have a blank slate it doesnt mean only about lge its also about behavior. It can be fell with whatever is learnt in the envirenment.
Stimulus( what makes the child produce an utterance): wanting to play- he want candy.
Response: heat- slapt
Reinforcement( imidiat feedback):( feedback which can be negative or positive): the pain- negative slapt
Habit formation: he will not do it again- he will not cry to get something again.
- according to skinner lge behavior is tge production of correct responces trough reinforcement: which can be positive or negative.
1- positive reinforcement results in the increase of repetition process.
2- negative reinforcement results in the reduction of repetitiong process.
- imitation: when u see/hear something and u produce something to it.
- repetition followed by practice= starts to use what he has imitated.
- according to skinner lge is learnt trough imitation, practice, repetition, habit formation.
- when we takk about lge acquisition all children master their first lge, tgey reach mastery of their mother lge.
- children are born without any linguistic knowldge, so all lge learning is the result of the envirenment. Children react to lge stimuly with responses. If their responses are correct they are reinforced and they become habitual. Rewarded behavior results it increases friquincy of behavior. The behavior is weekened and eventualy estinguished when it evokes panishement or is completly ignorant.
- usualy the parents correct the meaning of the sentence but not the gramatical mistake of the sentence. When parents correct children's grammar, it has no effect on the lge
- the child should achieve a specific thinking level to produce specific level of lge.
- children produce novel utterances( new utterances) that they have never heard before. Which goes against the imitation theory.
- the mentalist theory: chomsky
In lge we can distinguish between : performance which mean how we performe and use the lge in the real life. And competencewhich meab the linguistic roules that we have in our mind about a specific lge.
- the reinforcement theory problem is that the distinction between the performance and competence is not realy clear.
- the innatness theory: mentalist theory( chomsky).
- all lges share a certain fundamental properties that allow children to become fluent speakers of their first lge.
Chomsky: universal grammar: there are certain features that lges share.
-LAD: lge acquistiong device is a genetic divice that all humans(children) are born with. Small children are biologecally capable of learning lge ( predisposed to learn lge). This inate capacity that the choldren have allow them to aquire lge biologicaly and not socialy. Children live in a world of lge so they are likely to learn it becuz of some internal factors that make them learn.
- How does this LAD works:
Every child lives in an invirenment, in this invirenment the child has access to structures from his lge. They triger this LAD, he acquires those structures by creating associations by the structures of LAD and structures of lge. LAD is activated when children listen to structures of his lge and compares those structures with what he has in his mind. Children need access only to samples of a natural lge which serve as a triger to activate the LAD. Once the device is activated, children discover the structure of the lge to be learnt by matching the inate knowldge of the structure to the structures of the particular lge in the envirenment. According to chomsky, what a child needs to learn lge is the LAD and a world of lge.
- everybody learns lge not becuz of the subject conditioning proces but rather becuz thet possess a biological capacity to learn lge.
- children master there first lge in a very short time inspite of the highly obstructs nature of linguistic roules
- the theory of chomsky has some weekness becuz it ignored the role of envirenment in the process of learning.
Chomsky's theory has many advantages:
- it explains that lge is human specific= only humans use lge to communicate. Animals use signs or other things but not lge.
- it explains how small children can produce novel utterances that they have never heard .
- the critical period hypothesis(cph) in relation to chomsky's theory: it says that after the age of two if the child didnot learn a lge, he will never learn any lge at all
- after the age of pubarty a child can not learn a second lge with the smae native like mastery. Before the age of pubarty a child can master 3 lge. After the age of pubarty the learner can never reach the native mastery of tge.
This theory explain how children from all around the world aquire their first lge in the same way so that at tge age of ; or5 the child achieve mastery of his first lge.
- there is akind of universality in lge acquisition. There are things that are similar for all children they follow the same stages when learning their lge.
- chomsky's theory did not pay attention to the deverent stages of developement of lge acquisition. It concentrated more on the lge produced by children when they master lge, but he didnt study the deferent stages during the lge acquisition of the child ( the developement of the child acquisition of his first lge). Second this theory discards the social role . The society's tole was ignored in relation to the developement of the childs acquisition of this lge.
- the interactionist theory:
= according to the interactionist theory, lge is the result of the interplay between the inate learning ability of children and the invirenment in which they are brought up.
These sycologists attribute more importance to the invirenment that the inatests although, they can not ignore the role of the human mind.
The intetaction between the child and invirenment allows him to learn lge(to aquire lge) that socialisation process it what helps the child to speak his first lge.
- vigolsky: the conversation between the child and others( adults/ children) which helps him to acquire lge, he conseders the production of lge just one part in the cognitive development of the child. The cognitive development of a child has many things not only lge acquisition. If the child doesnot reach a cognitive development he will not reach a mastery of lge.
- the first lge: means the native lge or the mother tongue.
- second lge : any lge other than the first lge learnt. It is a lge learnt after the first lge in a context where the lge is used widely in the speacg community. It has a an institutional role in speech community.
- foriegn lge: is a second or 3rd or 4th: lge learnt in context where the lge is not widely used in the speech community. It doesnt have an institutional role in speech community.
French plays an institutional and functional role in the moroccan sociaty so it can be consedered as a second lge.
- when we talk about the deference between 1st lge acquisition and 2ed lge learning we should deal with:
The learner charactiristics and the learning conditions.
- 1st lge acquisition is an unconscious informal process = necessary children
-2nd lge learning is a conscious and formal lge= children or adults. The learner has a prior lge ( he already knows a lge). The learners of 2nd lge are more mature( cognitive maturity)
- Learning Vs acquisition:
-acquisition: is a subconscious and natural learning of lge, becuz of the interactions in a natural invirenment between peaple.(informal) . It is like we have a knowldge about the rules but this knowldge is unconscious. It is an implicit process which is associated with children ( small children). And we talk about children they all achieve mastery and they can speak it perfectly. While acquiring a lge children are active they listen and respond at the same time, they use lge in deferent situations. Children Guess the rule and then they aply it. Acquisition for small children is one of their basic needs for survival, they learn to speak the same as they learn to walk and eat.the child has no prior knowldge and Perfect mastery of the lge is guaranteed.
- learning: it is a conscious and explicit process of learning in which the learner is not completly involved. In this case the learning is passive, the teacher gives instructions and talks more than the students. And usage of the lge is limited to the class room. In this case the learner is given the rules, he learns the rules first and than he aplies it. The students focus more on the grammatical rules, and the role of the teacher is very important in giving instructions. Learners of 2nd lge are usualy corrected( immediat feedback). The reason why people learn a lge varies from situation to anther( work, intergration,etc.) in this case the learner has a prior knowldge about his 1st lge. One of the mistakes the learners commit in the first stages of learning the 2nd lge is that they rely too much on his 1st lge , he transfers the knowldge of the 1st lge to the 2nd. And here is it unlikely to achieve mastery of the 2nd lge.
- similarities:
All learners make errors.
Some aspects are learnt before others
Learners figure out the rules
Comprehention proceeds production
_ krashen --> natural approach.
Krachen's model of 2nd lge acquisition ( learning), he devoloped 5 hypothesis:
1- the acquisition learnig hypothesis: when devoloping tge ability, the learner has two deferent systems the acquired and the learned system.
- the acquired system: the unconscious learning of lge( subconscious), according to krashen the acquired system is better interlized than the learned system: becuz the focus is more on communication( fluency). Krashen thinks tht teachers should provide student with authentic materials: such as listening to audios, watching videos,..etc.
- the learned system: refers to lge which id learned consciously, formaly and by following instructions. when we talk about learning there's the focus on the form, the grammar as well as following instructions. focuses more on the form than communication( accuracy). according to krashen to devolope the acquiring system, teachers should encourage students to participated inside the class room And involve authentic materials, which will help students to acquire lge instead of just learning it.
- it was said that there is no scientific proof that the two systems work separatly, and that it was hard slso to proof that they were stored separatly.
2- the monitor hypothesis:
The output is what the learner is producing( speaking skills and the writting skils)
The input: teacher's instruction, reading, listening..
- when we are about to produce something, the output is monitored or checked.
A linguiatic expression that originates in the system of acquired knowldge, but prior to output on monitor which checkes it against known rules and may modify the expression. This monitor works widely when writting. For the monitor to operate there should be : time( u dont pay attention when u have short time, so the condition of time is important) + knowldge of the rules( if u dont know the rule how can u aply it) + focus on the form(in communication u will not focus on how it is said but what was said)
==> there are variations among users of tge monitor:
- the over users of the monitor: peoplde who pay much attention to what they write snd what they say. Perfectionists : they want to be perfect, it is believed that they lack selfconfidence.
- under users of the monitor: those who prefer not to use the conscious knowldge of lge. They dont focus on the form, fluency is more important for them.
- optimal users: refers to the ones who use lge appropriately.
- the monitor hypothesis inside the class: the teacher should strick balance between fluency and accuracy. For example: if the activity is fluency based, the teacher should focus more on communication and ideas more that on accuracy.
The monitor hypo was critisized= it was said that it is difficult to proof how the monitor works, so the hypothesis was consedered to be vide and not precise.
3- the natural order hypothesis:
It is believed that the learners learn some rules before others, mybe becuz of their complexity: learning the easy ones and then step by step towards the complex ones. The rules are acquired in a certain order. Some grammTical structures are learnt first while othets are learnt later. It is not related to the age of the learner each one will learn in a specific order.
- the natural order hypo inside the class room: the teacher should always take into conssederation the learners level in order create and provide easy lge items and move step by step towards more comlicated things.
4- the input hypothesis:
Humans acquire in only one way, by understanding msgs or by receiving comprehensible input. The learner should receive the 2nd lge input that is one step beyong his current stage of his linguistic competence. That is to say if the learner is at stage"i" the acquisition should take place when the learner is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to the level "i+1", which means that the mTeriAl should be challenging for the learner.
Inside the class room, thr teacher should provide authentic materials to learner one step beyond his level.
5- the affective filter hypothesis:
The sycological factors related to the personnality of the learner. Such as anxiety - motivation - selfconfidence.
- there are two types of anxiety: 1- facilitative anxiety= which means the positive anxiety and 2- debelitating anxiety = which means the negative anxiety.
- motivation: internal and external: a motivated learner can learn better.
- a learner with low level of anxiety and high level of motivation and high level of selfconfidence does better or learn better when acquiring a second lge. The affective factors facilitate the learning process depending on the learners personality. Which make them a very important factors.
The classroom should be a very worm envirenment in which the learner participate without fear of making mistakes.
- Learner's Errors.
- errors dont mean failure to learn, but rather it is a sign that someone is learning, a sign of the learning process. Errors refer to the systimatic deviations that the learner make when producing a lge
- constractibe analysis : making comparison between L1 and L2, and it was influenced by structrulism in which it tried to compare between two lges by describinh L1 and L2 by using structrulism methods that is to say to determine similarities and deferences between the two lges and than it becomes easy to predict Errors. It was also influenced by behaviorism which says that learning lge is a matter of habit formation, that is to say that behaviors that are rewarded and reinforced becomes habits, but behaviors that are nor rewarded neither reinforced are excluded.
- learners that share the same mothet tongue are likely to produce the same mistakes.
- positive transfer: refers to cases in which L1 and L2 share many linguistic items. When the linguistic featured are similar between the two lges, learning will be facilitated.
- negative transfer: when there is a huge defference between L1 and L2. Learning is going to be hard and Learners are likely to produce errors.
- contructive analysis = comparing = describing = determine similarities and deferences = predict Errors.
- not all errors are due to transfer. The constructive analysis ignored other types of mistakes, it was not able to predict all types of errors. Thats why the Error analysis was found.
- the error analysis: it starts from the mistakes that the learners make and tried to determine the sourse of the error.it aims to findout the troublesome and provide solutions. Thats why it is said that it is a scientific orientation and the constructive analysis is pedagogic orientation. It aims to explain the systimatic nature of deviations that learners generate in 2nd lge.
- Errors analysis Methodology;
1- collection of data: the way reseachers use collected errors that L2 learners make.
2- identification of Errors: identify the errors that the learners make.
3- description and explanation:
4- evaluation: to provide remedy and solutions to the errors made.
- learners make errors that are due with their L1: Interlingual errors at the level of phonoloy, syntax and semantic( doea not provide the same meaning after the transfer)
Intralingual: when learners make errors that are due with their 2nd lge. For ex: overgeneralization.
Errors analysis:
1- presystimatic error: making the error before knowing the rule,
2- systimatic error: produce errors when learners aply the wrong rule.
3-postsystimatic errors: errors that learners produce when they know the rule , they are mistakes.
- Error analyss is beneficial for teachers, learners and researchers:
Fro learners: it provides the linguistic necessary devices to discover the rules.
For teachers: it helps the teacher to provide necessary feedback and follow the learners progress.
For reseachers: it provides them with thar necessary data to know the sourse of theError.
- the interlanguage theory: it is a linguistic system of the rules which is not similar neither to L1 nor to L2. It defers from one individual To anther, the more one studies the more he gets closer to L2. It has rules and properties that are neither similar to L1 nor to L2. It is neither the system of the native lge nor the system of the target lge, but instead it falls between the two. It is a system based uopon the best attept of learners to provide order and structure to the input or linguistic stimuly surounding them. By a gradual process of trial and error hypothesis testing, learners slowly gets closer and closer to the target lge or the system of the native speaker. The more progress the learners make the less errors the commit.
- the learner construct a system of abstruct linguistic rules of comprehention and production of L2, this system of rules is called mental Grammar and it is referd to as an interlanguage. It is transitional which means that the learners change their Grammar by adding rules, by making progress in L2, the more progress you make the closer you get to L2. In other rules the interlanguage is not stable, there are certain rules that added and others that are omited or changed.
- according to Skinner only5% of learners go on to devolope the same mental grammar as the native speakers, and that most of the learners become fossilized or frozen, which means that they achieve a certain stage and that they can go beyond it.
-The learning stratigies:
- transfer: borrow rules from L1 and apply them on L2
- overgenerelization: when the learners uses the target lge rules in situation in which tge native speakers dont.
- simplification: the learners use or produce an interlanguage which is similar to the one of children or pigin.( lge which is not fully devoloped.
- affective factors: - the emotional side of tge human behavior: it is more related to feelings, t does influence the learning process, or more exactly, these factors influence the learning outcomes. It includes motivation, anxiety, selfconfidence, attitude.
- learners with positive affective factors are likely to learn rapidly a lge. For wxample learner who are hightly motivated succeed better.
1- how to define success.
2-it is defficult to observe and mesure these affective factors.
3- we can not talk about each factor independently without talking about the other.
When the affective filter is lower, it becomes easier to assimilate tge output. Can regarded as a barier in learning.
If the affective filter is high the learner is not motivated enough. Ands if the affective is low tge leraner is hightly motivated.
The teacher must take into consederation the emotional side of the student and try to provide a positive feedback.
1-self confidence: according to brown 2000 it refers to the "personnal judgement of worthness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individuals hold toward themselfs". It means/expresses an attitude of aproval or disaproval and indicate the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, worthy and successful. It refers to the selfimage of how each person sees himself. The image maybe positive or negative).
- general confidence: and it refers to an appraisal over time, it is not related to a specific skill or siyuation, it is rather related to all situations.
- situational confidence: it means that the learner is confident in some situations and he is not others. It is related to some situations.
-tadk confidence: it refers to particular tasks within a specific situation. It is believed that selfconfident learners with positive selfimage succeed more, they dare to communicate, participate in the class room, to take risks. They are likely to gain more knowldge. While those who lack selfconfidence are most of the time affraid of making mistakes and losing face.
- succssful lge learning only takes place in an invirenment where lthe learner's values and positive attitudes are promoted, and where learners aproach learning with confidence and joy, and where learners can use the target lge at ease. Therefor, teachers should spare no efort to create conditions that can be conducive to studens selfconfidence.
2- Attitudes: are both affective and cognitive, they are related to both emotions, feelings and thoughts. They can be influenced by parentd and the interactions with people with deferent backgrounds. A negative attitude toward L2 is likely to lesser the learners motivation to learn it. Positive attitude toward L3 encourage the learning of the lge. It influences class participation: learners with positive attitude performe actively classroom.
According to brown 2000, " form a pat of one's perception of the self and others, anf of the culture in which one is living.
3- motivation: it refers to "the process arousing and sustaining regulating intrest in an activily to satisfy a need" brown 2002.
It refers to the combination of efferts and desire to achieve the goal of learning the lge: the desire is not enough to succeed it should be combined by efforts to achieve it.
- instrumental morivation: to use/learn lge to achieve a specific goal. In other words, learners are interessted in L2 becus they want to achieve a specific aim. They lge ad an instrument.
2- integrative motivation: learn the lge to integrate in a specific culture( mainly the culture of L2). They become involved in the social interchange of that lge.
It is said that the student that have neither the instrumental motivation nor the integrative motivation, will face linguistic problems in learning L2.
- there also other types of motivation:
1- intrensic motivation: refers to the interesst to do and take part in certain activities becuz the learners are interessted in the activity. it is more related to the activity done. Enjoying the activity or the skill, makes one more interessted in it and in doing it.
2- extrensic motivation: refers to the students interesst in the activity, it is not related to the activity itself. For example: reward, to avoid panishement,or to please the parents). It is believed that it is more interessted that the intensiv motivation.
- teachers should motivate students in the classroom by varinh the activities, tasks, materials. And he should take into consederation the age and level.
2-using operative rather than competitive goals to increase both selfconfidence and motivation.
3- creating a supportive and non-treathing atmosphere.
4-teachers should have appositive emotional will being of the learners or students.
-Anxiety: it is associated with feeling of frustration, selfdoupt, apprehension or easyness when learning a lge, brown 1994. Any task that involves a certain degree of chalenge can expose the learner to selfdoupt uneasyness or fair. In fact, second lge learning is demending task that is when it is likely to raise anxiety.
1- trate anxiety: refers to permanent predisposition to be anxieous.
2-stateAnxiety: refers to momentary or situational anxiety( related to certain situation). It has been argued that noy all Anxiety is bad, and certain amount of tension can have positive effecrt and even falicitate learning.
- seconf lge learners anxiety is due to their compititive nature. They tend to become anxieous when they compare themselfs the other learners and found themselfs less proficient. Anxiety will dicrease when they percieve themselfs becoming more proficient and therefor better able to compete.
- the role of the teacher: he should be able to promote facilitative anxiety, providevpositive feedback and creatvnon-threating envirenment.
- implications:
- communicative competence:
- Chomsky:
- performance: actualization of the competence, it is the actual use of lge.
- competence: is that abstract knowldge of an ideal speaker-listener has in a homogeneous community. It refers to the knwldge of the linguistic rules= it includrd phonology- morphology- syntactic.
Chomsky was critisized:
Hynes= according to him there is no such ideal speaker-listener, according to hunes alsobthere is no homogeneous community- all communities are heterogeneous. He said that the linguistic competence is not enough and that we should have alsova social context in where the lge is used. A sociolinguistic knowldge includes the knowldge of some sociolinguistic situations: we should take into consederation the sociolinguistic variables, the setting for example.
-Canade and swini= in relation to lge teaching:
- according to them communicative competence shoulde include four types of communicative competence that the learner should know:
1- the grammatical competence: it is similar to what hynes call linguistic competence it is related to knowldge about grammatical and syntactic structure of lge.
2- sociolonguistic competence: it refers to the knowldge about linguistic variables of the second language. It means the ability to use lge in deferent social ontext.
3-Discourse competence: it complementd the grammatical competence, and it takes into consederation the production of coherent text.
4- strategic competence: it was consedered the most competence to define becuz it takes into consederation the verbal strategies used for break downs in communication.
2nd lge learners should have all this components.
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