Wyndham Lewis. Journey into barbary. travel narrative Analysis

- the author is making himself the center of everything, he thinks that he is an adventurer. He is a man for whom knowldge is important,he is introducing himself as a man of knowldge, as person with mind capacityand that he belongs to the circle of intelectuals. He conseders himself as an intelectual who cant be a tourist.
- paris symbolizes knowldge= it was the center of culture.
- from the introduction we can know that morocco will be seen from  the perspective of the french coloney. His sight and presentation is constracted from a western perspective. Morocco doesnt exist in land it is just an idea, it exists as an idea contrasted by westerners so they dont represent it is but rather as they see it, as they conceive of it mentaly. They dont recognize its physical existance. For the west in general the orient is an idea, they dont recognize the individual existance of its people. What they say doesnt correspond to reality= the text is something and the reality is something else. It is a missrepresentation that had an object which is to justify their colonisation to morocco.
 Thats why they stick to knowldge , they are suggesting that they know more than what the people of the orient know, and that they are quilified more than them to talk about them,which doesnt make sense. They are saying that those people are primitive and that their intention is to civilize them. We come to know that knowldge is power, knowldge gives you power to talk but only that but also mute the others.
- most of the time, the natives are described to be lazy, suggesting that the space should belong to the one's who had the capacity to devolope it
- they dont have the capacity to understand the other' culture= they are describing the town as being unorgnizied and empty
- casa : thevtown is displaced from its own original and cultural context. It is inscribed within a western context,within the colonist's context, as being attached to Europe, Suggesting that morocco doesnt exist becuz he is adressing the Europe. He is expressing the idea that casa didnt exist before and that it has been built by the french. Tge history of casa is erased discarded, the autor has given it a new one. In order to write and built new foundations of a new history one should first erase the one that already exists.
- WL is telling the reader how to see things, he is setting up construction of a narrative perspective. He is not letting the readers to concieve and see things fromtheir own point of view but rather he is directing them, he does not leave the reader to be free to conceive things, he is creating a perspective to the reader to follow in order to persuade and convince him. He wants the reader to be against this over glorification of places with history( they see too much and too much is not there). For him what people have in their minds about this places is only fantasy images and tha the reality is completly deferent.
- i remember....: we notice that he disocial him self from the text to build up the text grom his imagination. From this story the autor is siggesting that the french are here in order to protect and save people that are fighting each other in chaos, and that its not a conquest or invasion but only for the sake of protection and civilization.
- the music scene: he described it from his own memory, from things that already exists in his mind, which shows that he is disparted from reality.
- the berbers: are presented in relation to their senses(physically) and not in relation to the mind(knowldge). Making use of their physical(body) capabilities in order to live. Using the physical abilities and senses rather than using their mind. They are too much devoloped when it comes to the physical consciousness and that they lack the knowldge. In opposition to the Europians whos use knowldge, logic and reason He is suggesting the the physical existance is not enough, but it should be associated and added to the mind in order to exist.
-the way the indian is presented is projected to the orient, the autor is trying to say that they are the same. He is trying to persuade the reader that the land belongs to no one and that thet are only discovering things. When representing africans and orientals there is no mention of their history, knowldge or civilization terms but instead they are described physically.
The autor is redducing the space into a word= means destroying its physical existance.
-Motives behind the description of the women space:
    -knowldge has been always associated with man.
The body in this case has become the text to be opened.
- there are some sites that the colonizer didnt succeed to see and invade including the women space,which contains beauty, women and sensual pleasure. But it is closed and forbident space for them to get into it. So it has become their opssetion to discover it. and without the invasion of thid sites of resisstance the colonial invasion will have no meaning at all. This invadion is not only a physical invadion of the land, but also invasion of what the land stands for, the history, the culture, the values, etc.
- romantic frame work:
   - tge scene in where the berber girl undress is displaced in order to be depected and inscribed with western framework. The autor choosed to deal with this scene in relation to western romance.  a certain gap is created between the text snd reality, the text is something and reality is something else. The on going process of uncovering the girl is related to the process of descovering the land. When wee say that the gaze is from the outside and not the inside it means that the writter displays it from its own context and describes and sees it from his own view in association with his culture and context which makes it a misrepresentation.
-reenactment of the colonial conquest:**
- thesight is a means of knowldge and means of the begining of appropriation= appropriation through  means of sight= what u see becomes on the context of your kneldge= to know is a means of possession.
    -knowldge quilify them to claim and possess the land.
Every invasion meets with a resisstance but the resisstance the orientals have is week.
- eveybody looked: they have become week in front of her body, an unconscious desire to see, they suffer from abnormality, they are not capablr of doing snything else but looking. She has this power to attrack them and subjecyy them by her body. They have become under her power. She os perceived as body, a physical entity, but this physical entity has defeated them.
- this shift to the french lge can explained as follows: morocco was colonized by the french, so there was this shift to french as to suggest the french control over morocco.
- in order to justify their ideas, mainly the colonolization of morocco, they show the natives as primitive people that have no knowldge. They still dont know how to count and that they have no notion of time ( the year of the wind), they are related to nature snd they live in telation to natural cycles. They are just bodies interacting with nature. The narrator is suggesting that  these people, who are charactized with inactivity,  are living in the same way they used to live along time ago. In opposition to westenets.who are dynamic and who have the capacity to devolop snd progress.

DH LAWRENCE. Women in Love Novel. Analysis

The novel is about two relationships.two love relationships one is going yo be successful the other won't. DHL here is talking about physical love: he thinks that human beings exist physicaly and not spiritualy: "i exist becus i exist physically. The identity of the characters is related to tge physical aspect.
- DHL prceives sociaty the way he understands it.
- in this novel we sense the centrality of human beings.
- the chatacters are not visible within the sociaty one cant know everything about them.
- symbols will be used to evoque certain characters .in approching this strange, unconcious part of this characters, DHL will use symbols. When Gudurn finds out this strange part of Gerald she associates him with light. Lighted: means that she was facinated with his strangness.  Gerald crich is associated with symbols of light and water in its deferent forms. Whenever they talk about him there is always some light associated with him.
Knowledge is aquired trough cognitive means in oder words to have kbowldge trough perceptive means. Suggesting that one dont get knowldge from books but rather one can get knowldge from things themselfs.
- DHL believes that the mind maybe good but it can destroy the being.
- the autor is trying to explor the unconcious desire of the characters.
- there is also within the novel an attempt to constract an individual thats stands for a whole civilization. In order to build him as an individual that stands for the whole it will be built to remind the society of an important figure. The similarities between G.Crich and christ=but  not on the religious aspect. One of the main similarities is the name= and both were not married. The character we are dealing with is not a normal character, he is meant to stand for the whole civilization and his life is as important as the while civilization.
Smilling woolf: means that behind his smile there is a kind of deferent nature. The intentions behind it are not good. He is perfect as far as tge social values( socialy speaking) are conserned, but in fact he has a hidden dark part he can grow to a vilent animal in any time. His desires are vilent, he is bloody person but in the smar time he is calm and still, he is like a woolf the share the same nature.
-DHL belIeves that culture is invented by men. It is a matter of knowldge.
Hermione sticks to society. hermione is going to be associated with the chines race( tgere is an analogy established between her and the chines race) physicalyy speeking she is week and peel= her identity is destroied bcuz she feeds on ideas. Hermione succumb to this reality of realizing whi she is.= brought to closer to ger identity. Before she was living in a illusionary world. Tge social status that she used to enjoy is vanishing . She said that when it comes to the world of ideas no one can put her down but he went beneath all her defences and made her realize who she realy is . His presence destroyed her becuz he is a man that doesnt stick to illusion. She want to take him as a lover but he thinks that she us nothing similar to a book. She is not that good lookinh woman any more becuz now she sees her self exactly tge way she is. She was described as a living dead.
- the process of desulotion will lead to death according to ritual scheeme.
DHL expresses  the idea of the mind destroies the body, subjection of the body to the mind , this subjection means the destruction of the body, the destruction of one's essence. The things associated with the mind belong to the power of destruction and not the power of creation. He critisized science: he thinks that it is good but it helps in the destruction of humanity. The technology does not bring happiness, it brings more work more destruction and more suffering. It is good but at the same time it is destructive becuz it targets human sensebility. DHL wants to show that what the mind make does not necessary bring happiness ro human kind, insteed of producing happiness and love it produces suffering and destruction of senses. The mind is the sourse of all this suffering.insteed of controlling the machine, the machine is controlling them. They are subjugated by them and they have lost the hope.
- if Gerald has succeeded to build up a system its becus those miner has accepted it, and becuz they find a certain satisfaction in it . Gerald represents the religion that feel and desire. He is a man that they follow and worship. This system they find themself in is what they unconsciously desire, so we can say that Gerald is in a certain sense responding to the miners desire, it is not realy imposed on them . The miners find a certain satisfaction in this destruction.
- the workers and Gerald feel no need/ no obliation to greet each other, they intract between each other in a mechanical way, they have moved outside the himan scop. The relationship between them is and him is the one found on instrumentality, they deal with each other  as instruments= their importance depends on their performance, they are  not important as humans. They look at Gerald as an instrument and he does the same. He is like them he is just ahead.
- when we read about Gerald we discover that he is associated with death. He is a man who is able to give death. All what he is capable of is giving death( systomatic destruction of his familly). He has gone too far in the process of death. Gerald usher in a new era and makes an end to his father's. His father is important to him but somewhere inside him he desireshis death. He unconsciously desires his father's death. Unconsciously gerald is awar that the death of his father is the begining of his own. As his father is going through the process of death Gerald is becoming week. All his life he was a man interested in this mechanical activities, He has succeeded to make eveything perfect that he himself has become useless.he started to feel a certain emptyness within, he does not know what he was anymore. The fact of becoming useless has transformed him into the state of unexistance, he has reached a point when he realized he is empty inside. Death is invading him becuz everything has become meaningless, and when everything becomes meaningless automaticly life becomes meaningless. has become meaningless. He started to  feel what it means to be dead.
- the death of Geralds father is not dealt with as a death of an individual but rather it is universal it is the desth of humanity in general
The living death: they are living but they are in a state of death.
- Gerald is deferent from the others he is s man who does not try to live in death, but rather he gives death. His father is dead and geraldcfound himself face to face with he moves trying to leave death behind him but infact he is just getting closer to it.
Gerald and Gudurn: what had brought them together is corruption and sense of destruction and not love, they are quite similar. The underbridge in where they make love is desribed as aworld of darkness ( the underworld) which is reminding the reader of the grave with is caratrized by darkness. The act of making love is destroying both of them, gerald is not able to give love but only destruction and death his woolfish nature has manifested in this act of love., everything in which is involved ends up to, his destroyed. His satisfaction derives from others suffering, and both of them find their satisfaction in the destruction of othrrs. Tgey are runing fron death but ironicly they find satisfaction in this destruction, which means that they are completly corrupt.
- the love scene is not only a destruction of the other but also apropriation( swollowing the other). Nothing lovely about this scene it is associated with destruction.
-gerald is destroying Gudurn, her softness, wormth, etc. which means that he is destroying her life. The death which inhabits the man is what displays to the surface.  Love is physical for gudurn here love is in the head not love in the body. Knowldge is power, To know him means to apropriate him and make him under her own knowldge,she has transformed gim into an idea. everthing you know becomes under your control= they have this desire to more power, to become masters.
- some characters are described ad vimpiers= they are dead but they come back to life in order to suck others blood(life)= they are capable of giving death.
- in order to built his own ideas, DHL  borrows from mythologies and recontract them in order to fit his own world
- loerke= he does not believe in life= life for him is a joke= an illusion.
He is not serious towards life. He is intressted in playing and joking. He has no faith in life. He is a sports man life for him is a game. Life, which is founded on fundamental principles and tents, for him is aseries of dissolution and corruption. He is in an advanced stage of corruption and dissolution. Because life has become meaningless for him, loerki is the living the life o the livivg dead in this corrupt and dark world. Loerki is destroying and killing life by transforming this horse, who stands for life, into something stock, stupid and brutal. What he believes and his attitudr towards life is reflected and manifested in his art. When u approach life mentaly, you take life out of things, you transforme everyhthing( living things into an idea. For him art is art and life is life. They are not related to each other, the piece of art has nothing to do with the outside.
-in this novel we are provided with people who are in a state o s death, DHL thinks that people should move from the state o living dead to the act of death.
- the role given to the arab character is to serve and to wait for others. He is a character that is made to be invisible, as not to be seen, there is no importance is attended to him, he does not take place in action. (Bending)= expressing miniority on others. He was described as leopard like fashion which means that he is bending low but also he is ready to attack. There is a deference between wat u see outside and what is realy inside. The autor is discribing him from the outside and also what lies beneath inside him. There os an analogy between one's physiology and sycology. He is described as being in a state of ash, meaning in a state of death, he is neither capable to die nor to live, he is stuck in corupt world. He is not capable of living but at the same time he refuses to die.
True existance is existing as an individual entity= pcessing a certain distingtive essence.
- for DHL if you have the capacity to die it means that you love life.
- the arab mare is used to symoblize an organic object and Gerald tried to destroy it by a mechanic object, suggesting that two cannot go together, they are in odds.-Gerald's will to power os shown in this subjection of this organic object.  Gerald is dead as far as the body is concerned but alive as farvas the mind is concerned. (Half-smilling )acting like a woolf= suggesting pleasure and enjoyment. He finds a great pleasure in inflocting pain to others  getald finds a certain satisfaction in sabduing the mare to his own power, he insists on his well and does not care about the mare's suffering. He is manifesting his power on this noble animal. The description of the mare is expressing the suffering she is going trough and that she is being destroyed, she is subjected to a slow death which is realy painful, everything about her is changing, we notice her shift to the abnormal. Transforming this naturale creature into a mechanical object, he changed her from one context to anther. When he finaly succeeded to subdue her, he she is acting not according to her nature anymore.
- for Gerald the father is a kind of sn armer, he is a kind of protection. Suggesting that his life is somehow related to his familly member's life, principly his father.
-There is nothing himan lift in Gerald, he has become mecanical. He does not percieve miners from a human perspective. For him they are just workers, if they work well they are good. He does not care about tyem even if they die.
- Gerald is raising the mind to the stage of divinity( deification of the mind), a stage o god. The mind has this power that we assign to god, he is transforming himself into a god.
- there should be a harmony between human kind and nature.humans are enimies of all what is organic, they have forgoten there own essence and they have focused more on the spiritual things.

Applied linguistics explanation and analysis

- Applied linguistics: when it was first founded it limited itself to teaching and learning lge only. But after, it main purpose is to solve problems of lge, its not limoted to lge teaching anymore, it deals with lge problems in other fields, communication for example.
- we can sistinguish between first lge aquisition in terms of:
- Geography, order, dominace: the dominant lge will be learnt first.
- Deference between acquisition and learning:
   -acquisition: is an unconscious process(most of the time), natural process.
    - learning: is a formal set, and most of the time is a conscious process and takes place in a formal sitting.
In the process of learning lge there are dtages tgat children follow:
1- the bumbling stage. 2- one word stage. 3- two words stage.
- theories: reinforcement theory/ behaviorism theory: watson, skinner.
                  Mentalist theory: N. chomsky. Cognitive tgeory: piaget.
- behaviorists worked on animals. They made experements on animals and try to aply the findings on human beings. Behaviorism is a word view that opporite on the principles of stimulus. All behavior is paused by an external stimulus response( stimulus+ response+ reinforcement+ habit formation.) according to behaviorists lge is a behavior.
- blank slate "tabula rasa" = it means that the mind is like a white paper. When we say that humans have a blank slate it doesnt mean only about lge its also about behavior. It can be fell with whatever is learnt in the envirenment.
Stimulus( what makes the child produce an utterance): wanting to play- he want candy.
Response: heat- slapt
Reinforcement( imidiat feedback):( feedback which can be negative or positive): the pain- negative slapt
Habit formation: he will not do it again- he will not cry to get something again.
- according to skinner lge behavior is tge production of correct responces trough reinforcement: which can be positive or negative.
1- positive reinforcement results in the increase of repetition process.
2- negative reinforcement results in the reduction of repetitiong process.
- imitation: when u see/hear something and u produce something to it.
- repetition followed by practice= starts to use what he has imitated.
- according to skinner lge is learnt trough imitation, practice, repetition, habit formation.
- when we takk about lge acquisition all children master their first lge, tgey reach mastery of their mother lge.
- children are born without any linguistic knowldge, so all lge learning is the result of the envirenment. Children react to lge stimuly with responses. If their responses are correct they are reinforced and they become habitual. Rewarded behavior results it increases friquincy of behavior. The behavior is weekened and eventualy estinguished when it evokes panishement or is completly ignorant.
- usualy the parents correct the meaning of the sentence but not the gramatical mistake of the sentence. When parents correct children's grammar, it has no effect on the lge
- the child should achieve a specific thinking level to produce specific level of lge.
- children produce novel utterances( new utterances) that they have never heard before. Which goes against the imitation theory.
- the mentalist theory: chomsky
In lge we can distinguish between : performance which mean how we performe and use the lge in the real life. And competencewhich meab the linguistic roules that we have in our mind about a specific lge.
- the reinforcement theory problem is that the distinction between the performance and competence is not realy clear.
- the innatness theory: mentalist theory( chomsky).
- all lges share a certain fundamental properties that allow children  to become fluent speakers of their first lge.
Chomsky: universal grammar: there are certain features that lges share.
-LAD: lge acquistiong device is a genetic divice that all humans(children) are born with. Small children are biologecally capable of learning lge ( predisposed to learn lge). This inate capacity that the choldren have allow them to aquire lge biologicaly and not socialy. Children live in a world of lge so they are likely to learn it becuz of some internal factors that make them learn.

- How does this LAD works:
Every child lives in an invirenment, in this invirenment the child has access to structures from his lge. They triger this LAD, he acquires those structures by creating associations by the structures of LAD and structures of lge. LAD is activated when children listen to structures of his  lge and compares those structures with what he has in his mind. Children need access only to samples of a natural lge which serve as a triger to activate the LAD. Once the device is activated, children discover the structure of the lge to be learnt by matching the inate knowldge of the structure to the structures of the particular lge in the envirenment. According to chomsky, what a child needs to learn lge is the LAD and a world of lge.
- everybody learns lge not becuz of the subject conditioning proces but rather becuz thet possess a biological capacity to learn lge.
- children master there first lge in a very short time inspite of the highly obstructs nature of linguistic roules
- the theory of chomsky has some weekness becuz it ignored the role of envirenment in the process of learning.
Chomsky's theory has many advantages:
- it explains that lge is human specific= only humans use lge to communicate. Animals use signs or other things but not lge.
- it explains how small children can produce novel utterances that they have never heard .
- the critical period hypothesis(cph) in relation to chomsky's theory: it says that after the age of two if the child didnot learn a lge, he will never learn any lge at all
- after the age of pubarty a child can not learn a second lge with the smae native like mastery. Before the age of pubarty a child can master 3 lge. After the age of pubarty the learner can never reach the native mastery of tge.
This theory explain how children from all around the world aquire their first lge in the same way so that at tge age of ; or5  the child achieve mastery of his first lge.
 - there is akind of universality in lge acquisition. There are things that are similar for all children they follow the same stages when learning their lge.
- chomsky's theory did not pay attention to the deverent stages of developement of lge acquisition. It concentrated more on the lge produced by children when they master lge, but he didnt study the deferent stages during the lge acquisition of the child ( the developement of the child acquisition of his first lge). Second this theory discards the social role . The society's tole was ignored in relation to the developement of the childs acquisition of this lge.

- the interactionist theory:
= according to the interactionist theory, lge is the result of the interplay between the inate learning ability of children and the invirenment in which they are brought up.
These sycologists attribute more importance to the invirenment that the inatests although, they can not ignore the role of the human mind.
The intetaction between the child and invirenment allows him to learn lge(to aquire lge) that socialisation process it what helps the child to speak his first lge.
- vigolsky: the conversation between the child and others( adults/ children) which helps him to acquire lge, he conseders the production of lge just one part in the cognitive development of the child. The cognitive development of a child has many things not only lge acquisition. If the child doesnot reach a cognitive development he will not reach a mastery of lge.
- the first lge: means the native lge or the mother tongue.
- second lge : any lge other than the first lge learnt. It is a lge learnt after the first lge in a context where the lge is used widely in the speacg community. It has a an institutional role in speech community.
- foriegn lge: is a second or 3rd or 4th: lge learnt in context where the lge is not widely used in the speech community. It doesnt have an institutional role in speech community.
French plays an institutional and functional role in the moroccan sociaty so it can be consedered as a second lge.
- when we talk about the deference between 1st lge acquisition and 2ed lge learning  we should deal with:
The learner charactiristics and the learning conditions.
- 1st lge acquisition is an unconscious informal  process = necessary children
-2nd lge learning is a conscious and formal lge= children or adults. The learner has a prior lge ( he already knows a lge). The learners of 2nd lge are more mature( cognitive maturity)
- Learning Vs acquisition:
-acquisition: is a subconscious and natural learning of lge, becuz of the interactions in a natural invirenment between peaple.(informal) . It is like we have a knowldge about the rules but this knowldge is unconscious. It is an implicit process which is associated with children ( small children). And we talk about children they all achieve mastery and they can speak it perfectly. While acquiring a lge children are active they listen and respond at the same time, they use lge in deferent situations. Children Guess the rule and then they aply it. Acquisition for small children is one of their basic needs for survival, they learn to speak the same as they learn to walk and eat.the child has no prior knowldge and  Perfect mastery of the lge is guaranteed.
- learning: it is a conscious and explicit process of learning in which the learner is not completly involved. In this case the learning is passive, the teacher gives instructions and talks more than the students. And usage of the lge is limited to the class room. In this case  the learner is given the rules, he learns the rules first and than he aplies it. The students focus more on the grammatical rules, and the role of the teacher is very important in giving instructions. Learners of 2nd lge are usualy corrected( immediat feedback). The reason why people learn a lge varies from situation to anther( work, intergration,etc.) in this case the learner has a prior knowldge about his 1st lge. One of the mistakes the learners commit in the first stages of learning the 2nd lge is that they rely too much on his 1st lge , he transfers the knowldge of the 1st lge to the 2nd. And here is it unlikely to achieve mastery of the 2nd lge.
- similarities:
All learners make errors.
Some aspects are learnt before others
Learners figure out the rules
Comprehention proceeds production
_ krashen --> natural approach.
Krachen's model of 2nd lge acquisition ( learning), he devoloped 5 hypothesis:
1- the acquisition learnig hypothesis: when devoloping tge ability, the learner has two deferent systems the acquired and the learned system.
 - the acquired system: the unconscious learning of lge( subconscious), according to krashen the acquired system is better interlized than the learned system: becuz the focus is more on communication( fluency). Krashen thinks tht teachers should provide student with authentic materials: such as listening to audios, watching videos,..etc.
- the learned system: refers to lge which id learned consciously, formaly and by following instructions. when we talk about learning there's the focus on the form, the grammar as well as following instructions. focuses more on the form than communication( accuracy). according to krashen to devolope the acquiring system, teachers should encourage students to participated inside the class room And involve authentic materials, which will help students to acquire lge instead of just learning it.
- it was said that there is no scientific proof that the two systems work separatly, and that it was hard slso to proof that they were stored separatly.
2- the monitor hypothesis:
The output is what the learner is producing( speaking skills and the writting skils)
The input: teacher's instruction, reading, listening..
- when we are about to produce something, the output is monitored or checked.
A linguiatic expression that originates in the system of acquired knowldge, but prior to output on monitor which checkes it against known rules and may modify the expression. This monitor works widely when writting. For the monitor to operate there should be : time( u dont pay attention when u have short time, so the condition of time is important) + knowldge of the rules( if u dont know the rule how can u aply it) + focus on the form(in communication u will not focus on how it is said but what was said)
==> there are variations among users of tge monitor:
- the over users of the monitor: peoplde who pay much attention to what they write snd what they say. Perfectionists : they want to be perfect, it is believed that they lack selfconfidence.
- under users of the monitor: those who prefer not to use the conscious knowldge of lge. They dont focus on the form, fluency is more important for them.
- optimal users: refers to the ones who use lge appropriately.
- the monitor hypothesis inside the class: the teacher should strick balance between fluency and accuracy. For example: if the activity is fluency based, the teacher should focus more on communication and ideas more that on accuracy.
The monitor hypo was critisized= it was said that it is difficult to proof how the monitor works, so the hypothesis was consedered to be vide and not precise.
3- the natural order hypothesis:
It is believed that the learners learn some rules before others, mybe becuz of their complexity: learning the easy ones and then step by step towards the complex ones. The rules are acquired in a certain order. Some grammTical structures are learnt first while othets are learnt later. It is not related to the age of the learner each one will learn in a specific order.
- the natural order hypo inside the class room: the teacher should always take into conssederation the learners level in order create and provide easy lge items and move step by step towards more comlicated things.
4- the input hypothesis:
Humans acquire in only one way, by understanding msgs or by receiving comprehensible input. The learner should receive the 2nd lge input that is one step beyong his current stage of his linguistic competence. That is to say if the learner is at stage"i" the acquisition should take place when the learner is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to the level "i+1", which means that the mTeriAl should be challenging for the learner.
Inside the class room, thr teacher should provide authentic materials to learner one step beyond his level.
5- the affective filter hypothesis:
The sycological factors related to the personnality of the learner. Such as anxiety - motivation - selfconfidence.
- there are two types of anxiety: 1- facilitative anxiety= which means the positive anxiety and 2- debelitating anxiety = which means the negative anxiety.
- motivation: internal and external: a motivated learner can learn better.

- a learner with low level of anxiety and high level of motivation and high level of selfconfidence does better or learn better when acquiring a second lge. The affective factors facilitate the learning process depending on the learners personality. Which make them a very important factors.
The classroom should be a very worm envirenment in which the learner participate without fear of making mistakes.
- Learner's Errors.
- errors dont mean failure to learn, but rather it is a sign that someone is learning, a sign of the learning process. Errors refer to the systimatic deviations that the learner make when producing a lge
- constractibe analysis : making comparison between L1 and L2, and it was influenced by structrulism in which it tried to compare between two lges by describinh L1 and L2 by using structrulism methods that is to say to determine similarities and deferences between the two lges and than it becomes easy to predict Errors. It was also influenced by behaviorism which says that learning lge is a matter of habit formation, that is to say that behaviors that are rewarded and reinforced becomes habits, but behaviors that are nor rewarded neither reinforced are excluded.
- learners that share the same mothet tongue are likely to produce the same mistakes.


- positive transfer: refers to cases in which L1 and L2 share many linguistic items. When the linguistic featured are similar between the two lges, learning will be facilitated.
- negative transfer: when there is a huge defference between L1 and L2. Learning is going to be hard and Learners are likely to produce errors.
- contructive analysis = comparing = describing = determine similarities and deferences = predict Errors.
- not all errors are due to transfer. The constructive analysis ignored other types of mistakes, it was  not able to predict all types of errors. Thats why the Error analysis was found.
- the error analysis: it starts from the mistakes that the learners make and tried to determine the sourse of the error.it aims to findout the troublesome and provide solutions. Thats why it is said that it is a scientific orientation and the constructive analysis is pedagogic orientation. It aims to explain the systimatic nature of deviations  that learners generate in 2nd lge.
- Errors analysis Methodology;
1- collection of data: the way reseachers use collected errors that L2 learners make.
2- identification of Errors: identify the errors that the learners make.
3- description and explanation:
4- evaluation: to provide remedy and solutions to the errors made.
- learners make errors that are due with their L1: Interlingual errors at the level of phonoloy, syntax and semantic( doea not provide the same meaning after the transfer)
Intralingual: when learners make errors that are due with their 2nd lge. For ex: overgeneralization.
Errors analysis:
1- presystimatic error: making the error before knowing the rule,
2- systimatic error: produce errors when learners aply the wrong rule.
3-postsystimatic errors: errors that learners produce when they know the rule , they are mistakes.
- Error analyss is beneficial for teachers, learners and researchers:
Fro learners: it provides the linguistic necessary devices to discover the rules.
For teachers: it helps the teacher to provide necessary feedback and follow the learners progress.
For reseachers: it provides them with thar necessary data to know the sourse of theError.
- the interlanguage theory: it is a linguistic system of the rules which is not similar neither to L1 nor to L2. It defers from one individual To anther, the more one studies the more he gets closer to L2. It has rules and properties that are neither similar to L1 nor to L2. It is neither the system of the native lge nor the system of the target lge, but instead it falls between the two. It is a system based uopon the best attept of learners to provide order and structure to the input or linguistic stimuly surounding them. By a gradual process of trial and error hypothesis testing, learners slowly gets closer and closer to the target lge or the system of the native speaker. The more progress the learners make the less errors the commit.
- the learner construct a system of abstruct linguistic rules of comprehention and production of L2, this system of rules is called mental Grammar and it is referd to as an interlanguage. It is transitional which means that the learners change their Grammar by adding rules, by making progress in L2, the more progress you make the closer you get to L2.  In other rules the interlanguage is not stable, there are certain rules that added and others that are omited or changed.
- according to Skinner only5% of learners go on to devolope the same mental grammar as the native speakers, and that most of the learners become fossilized or frozen, which means that they achieve a certain stage and that they can go beyond it.
-The learning stratigies:
- transfer: borrow rules from L1 and apply them on L2
- overgenerelization: when the learners uses the target lge rules in situation in which tge native speakers dont.
- simplification: the learners use or produce an interlanguage which is similar to the one of children or pigin.( lge which is not fully devoloped.
- affective factors: - the emotional side of tge human behavior: it is more related to feelings, t does influence the learning process, or more exactly, these factors influence the learning outcomes. It includes motivation, anxiety, selfconfidence, attitude.
- learners with positive affective factors are likely to learn rapidly a lge. For wxample learner who are hightly motivated  succeed better.
1- how to define success.
2-it is defficult to observe and mesure these affective  factors.
3- we can not talk about each factor independently without talking about the other.
When the affective filter is lower, it becomes easier to assimilate tge output. Can regarded as a barier in learning.
If the affective filter is high the learner is not motivated enough. Ands if the affective is low tge leraner is hightly motivated.
The teacher must take into consederation the emotional side of the student and try to provide a positive feedback.
1-self confidence: according to brown 2000 it refers to the "personnal judgement of worthness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individuals hold toward themselfs". It means/expresses an attitude of aproval or disaproval and indicate the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, worthy and successful. It refers to the selfimage of how each person sees himself. The image maybe positive or negative).
 - general confidence: and it refers to an appraisal over time, it is not related to a specific skill or siyuation, it is rather related to all situations.
- situational confidence: it means that the learner is confident in some situations and he is not others. It is related to some situations.
-tadk confidence: it refers to particular tasks within a specific situation. It is believed that selfconfident learners with positive selfimage succeed more, they dare to communicate, participate in the class room, to take risks. They are likely to gain more knowldge. While those who lack selfconfidence are most of the time affraid of making mistakes and losing face.
- succssful lge learning only takes place in an invirenment where lthe learner's values and positive attitudes are promoted, and where learners aproach learning with confidence and joy, and where learners can use the target lge at ease. Therefor, teachers should spare no efort to create conditions that can be conducive to studens selfconfidence.
2- Attitudes: are both affective and cognitive, they are related to both emotions,  feelings and thoughts. They can be influenced by parentd and the interactions with people with deferent backgrounds. A negative attitude toward L2 is likely to lesser the learners motivation to learn it. Positive attitude toward L3 encourage the learning of the lge. It influences class participation: learners with positive attitude performe actively classroom.

According to brown 2000, " form a pat of one's perception of the self and others, anf of the culture in which one is living.
3- motivation: it refers to "the process arousing and sustaining regulating intrest in an activily to satisfy a need" brown 2002.
It refers to the combination of efferts and desire to achieve the goal of learning the lge: the desire is not enough to succeed it should be combined by efforts to achieve it.
- instrumental morivation: to use/learn lge to achieve a specific goal. In other words, learners are interessted in L2  becus they want to achieve a specific aim. They lge ad an instrument.
2- integrative motivation: learn the lge to integrate in a specific culture( mainly the culture of L2). They become involved in the social interchange of that lge.
It is said that the student that have neither the instrumental motivation nor the integrative motivation, will face linguistic problems in learning L2.
- there also other types of motivation:
1- intrensic motivation: refers to the interesst to do and take part in certain activities becuz the learners are interessted in the activity. it is more related to the activity done. Enjoying the activity or the skill, makes one more interessted in it and in doing it.
2- extrensic motivation: refers to the students interesst in the activity, it is not related to the activity itself. For example: reward, to avoid panishement,or to please the parents). It is believed that it is more interessted that the intensiv motivation.
- teachers should motivate students in the classroom by varinh the activities, tasks, materials. And he should take into consederation the age and level.
2-using operative rather than competitive goals to increase both selfconfidence and motivation.
3- creating a supportive and non-treathing atmosphere.
4-teachers should have appositive emotional will being of the learners or students.
-Anxiety: it is associated with feeling of frustration, selfdoupt, apprehension or easyness when learning a lge, brown 1994. Any task that involves a certain degree of chalenge can expose the learner to selfdoupt uneasyness or fair. In fact, second lge learning is demending task that is when it is likely to raise anxiety.
1- trate anxiety: refers to permanent predisposition to be anxieous.
2-stateAnxiety: refers to momentary or situational anxiety( related to certain situation). It has been argued that noy all Anxiety is bad, and certain amount of tension can have positive effecrt and even falicitate learning.
- seconf lge learners anxiety is due to their compititive nature. They tend to become  anxieous when they compare themselfs the other learners and found themselfs less proficient. Anxiety will dicrease when they percieve themselfs becoming more proficient and therefor better able to compete.

- the role of the teacher: he should be able to promote facilitative anxiety, providevpositive feedback and creatvnon-threating envirenment.
- implications:
- communicative competence:
- Chomsky:
   - performance: actualization of the competence, it is the actual use of lge.
    - competence: is that abstract knowldge of an ideal speaker-listener has in a homogeneous community. It refers to the knwldge of the linguistic rules= it includrd phonology- morphology- syntactic.
Chomsky was critisized:
Hynes= according to him there is no such ideal speaker-listener, according to hunes alsobthere is no homogeneous community- all communities are heterogeneous. He said that the linguistic competence is not enough and that we should have alsova social context in where the lge is used. A sociolinguistic knowldge includes the knowldge of some sociolinguistic situations: we should take into consederation the sociolinguistic variables, the setting for example.
-Canade and swini= in relation to lge teaching:
- according to them communicative competence shoulde include four types of communicative competence that the learner should know:
1- the grammatical competence: it is similar to what hynes call linguistic competence it is related to knowldge about grammatical and syntactic structure of lge.
2- sociolonguistic competence: it refers to the knowldge about linguistic variables of the second language. It means the ability to use lge in deferent social ontext.
3-Discourse competence: it complementd the grammatical competence, and it takes into consederation the production of coherent text.
4- strategic competence: it was consedered the most competence to define becuz it takes into consederation the verbal strategies used for break downs in communication.
2nd lge learners should have all this components.

Heart of Darkness Symbolism, Imagery & Allegory

Light and Dark

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

Put away your yin-yang posters: in Heart of Darkness, light doesn't necessarily symbolize pure goodness or pure enlightenment. In fact, Conrad's vision is so dark that we're not even sure he fully trusts light. As Marlow says, "sunlight can be made to lie, too" (3.50).

Over and over, we see light giving way to darkness: the sun sets, sane people go crazy, and the white ivory introduces a brutal trade. And over and over, we see black and white merging: Brussels as a "whited sepulcher" (1.21); the ivory deep in the black jungle; the white-capped woman knitting with black wool (1.24), the Intended as a "pale head" dressed "all in black" (3.53).

And then, in case you weren't quite confused enough, everything gets more complicated: Marlow compares white men to black men, and concludes (potentially) that these men are all the same. That doesn't sound so confusing? Well, consider what happens when his steamboat is stuck in the fog: he says that the fog is so thick that they can't tell up from down. Without understanding differences—like the difference between black and white, or up and down—you can't tell anything at all. There's no meaning. Doesn't that sound pretty horrific?

Two Knitting Women

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

These aren't harmless old grannies knitting acrylic baby blankets by the fireside. Not at all. Check out the description of them:

In the outer room the two women knitted black wool feverishly. People were arriving, and the younger one was walking back and forth introducing them. The old one sat on her chair. Her flat cloth slippers were propped up on a foot-warmer, and a cat reposed on her lap. She wore a starched white affair on her head, had a wart on one cheek, and silver-rimmed spectacles hung on the tip of her nose. She glanced at me above the glasses. The swift and indifferent placidity of that look troubled me. Two youths with foolish and cheery countenances were being piloted over, and she threw at them the same quick glance of unconcerned wisdom. She seemed to know all about them and about me, too. An eerie feeling came over me. She seemed uncanny and fateful. Often far away there I thought of these two, guarding the door of Darkness, knitting black wool as for a warm pall, one introducing, introducing continuously to the unknown, the other scrutinizing the cheery and foolish faces with unconcerned old eyes. Ave! Old knitter of black wool. Morituri te salutant. (1.24)

The thing that strikes us right away is that these ladies seem to represent the Moirae—the ancient Greek personifications of fate. Two of the three Fates spin the life-thread of each human being; the third Fate cuts the thread when the time comes for the man to die. The Fates, being immortals, have foresight and thus can see every man's fate.

Okay, where are we getting all that? Well, look at the way Marlow contrasts them—old, young; thin, fat; uncanny, cheerful. The Greek conception tended to think the three Fates as being young, middle-aged, and old: the young one represents birth, the middle one life, and the old one death.

And then there's that Latin quotation at the end, which means "They who are about to die salute you." Traditionally, that's the greeting made to the emperor by condemned Roman criminals, gladiators, or anyone else who was, you know, about to die. (Sadly, it's probably not actually true.) Since the Fates control life, it makes sense for Conrad to throw this in.

But that leads us to the most important question: what happened to the third Fate? Which one's missing—life? birth? Is this an indication that something's gone horribly wrong?

Flies

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

This one's practically a freebie: flies have been symbolizing death ever since flies hung around dead bodies (so, forever). Slightly more recently than "forever"—but also a long time ago—the devil got the nickname "Beelzebub," which most people translate as "Lord of the Flies." (We're pretty sure William Golding had read Heart of Darkness.)

In Heart of Darkness, flies notably appear when an agent dies in Chapter One ("In the steady buzz of flies the homeward-bound agent was lying finished and insensible" [1.48]) and when Kurtz dies: "A continuous shower of small flies streamed upon the lamp, upon the cloth, upon our hands and faces" (3.44).

Heads on Sticks

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

The heads-on-sticks symbolize Kurtz's excessive brutality and they're the final clue we need to decide that, yep, Kurtz is mad.

The appearance of these heads-on-sticks is the graphic climax of the book, which comes conveniently close to the plot climax. Coincidence? Not if you're into Conrad half as much as we are. We've seen some pretty horrible things up until this point, but the heads on sticks take the cake. And check out how the horror show is revealed to us:

Now I had suddenly a nearer view, and its first result was to make me throw my head back as if before a blow. Then I went carefully from post to post with my glass, and I saw my mistake. These round knobs were not ornamental but symbolic; they were expressive and puzzling, striking and disturbing—food for thought and also for vultures if there had been any looking down from the sky; but at all events for such ants as were industrious enough to ascend the pole. They would have been even more impressive, those heads on the stakes, if their faces had not been turned to the house. Only one, the first I had made out, was facing my way. I was not so shocked as you may think. The start back I had given was really nothing but a movement of surprise. I had expected to see a knob of wood there, you know. I returned deliberately to the first I had seen—and there it was, black, dried, sunken, with closed eyelids—a head that seemed to sleep at the top of that pole, and, with the shrunken dry lips showing a narrow white line of the teeth, was smiling, too, smiling continuously at some endless and jocose dream of that eternal slumber. (3.4)

Marlow doesn't come right out and say, "Oh, and by the way, those ornamental knobs were actually heads." No—he walks us through it, showing us his reaction: "its first result was to make me throw my head back as if before a blow." But we still don't know why, even after we find out that they're "symbolic." In fact, we don't find out that they're heads until halfway through the paragraph.

So, it's interesting is a little, like, "No biggie," about all this. As if to symbolize the way Marlow combats horror with humor, he tells us that these "black, dried, sunken" heads are "smiling continuously" in their "jocose dream of eternal slumber." Which, let's face it, wouldn't really be the language we would use to describe severed heads.

Language

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

Like everything else in this novel, language is a mixed bag. On the one hand, Marlow sees Kurtz's eloquence as a redeeming feature—but it's also the reason he goes mad. In the end, he's "very little more than a voice" (2.27).

But we could also say that language is used as a human connection. When Marlow finds the harlequin's book, he feels relieved because he can connect to something manmade: "The simple old sailor, with his talk of chains and purchases, made me forget the jungle and the pilgrims in a delicious sensation of having come upon something unmistakably real" (2.9).

So what? Well, maybe Marlow's whole story is a way to differentiate himself from Kurtz: it's a symbolic way of retaining his own individuality among the encroaching madness brought upon by the wilderness.

Hm. Sounds good to us.

The Accountant

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

When Marlow meets the accountant, he's stunned:

I met a white man, in such an unexpected elegance of get-up that in the first moment I took him for a sort of vision. I saw a high starched collar, white cuffs, a light alpaca jacket, snowy trousers, a clean necktie, and varnished boots. No hat. Hair parted, brushed, oiled, under a green-lined parasol held in a big white hand. He was amazing, and had a penholder behind his ear. (1.42)

Okay, now picture yourself heading off to a camping trip in your prom gear: boutonniere, cummerbund, sparkly dress, maybe even some sexy heels. Pretty ridiculous, right? That's the accountant.

The thing is, he symbolizes the Company as it wants to be seen. He dresses elegantly despite the heat and the poverty of the black native African workers surrounding him, emphasizing the Company's professionalism. He's always immersed in his accounting books, diligently completing his work, which represents the Company's devotion to perfection and excellence.

Yep, this guy really is Employee of the Year—especially when his only response to the groans of a coworker is to complain about how it's hard to do math when someone's dying across the room. (True that. We can't even do math in the silence of a proctored test room.) His varnished boots help us see exactly how hypocritical and disgusting the company is.

The Doctor

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

Before heading to Africa, Marlow has to visit a doctor. We only see the guy for a few minutes, but he gives us unpleasant feelings—and Marlow, too. he's not a symbol so much as an agent of foreshadowing, a reminder that the imperialist project affects everyone, and not always in good ways.

In particular, he seems to be a little too interested in whether there's any "madness" in Marlow's family, and he calls the information "my share in the advantages my country shall reap from the possession of such a magnificent dependency" (1.26). In other words—he sees the explorers and agents as one (completely unethical) scientific experiment. Key element? Measuring Marlow's skull, which he sees as something akin to taking scientific observations of his brain.

Will Marlow, too, be irrevocably changed from his journey into a murderous and obsessed madman? We're not sure. But toward the beginning of Marlow's journey, he remembers the doctor's words and says—in a rare moment of humor—"I felt I was becoming scientifically interesting" (1.51). He might not come back totally mad, but it's close

Kurtz's Painting

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

At the central station, Marlow sees a painting, "a woman, draped and blindfolded, carrying a lighted torch. The background was sombre—almost black. The movement of the woman was stately, and the effect of the torchlight on the face was sinister" (1.57).

What's up with this? Well, Kurtz painted it, for one. And then there's the whole issue of the woman, and we already know that Marlow seems to sequester women into idealized roles outside the realm of gloomy reality. This woman is so separate that she's a painting, and she's so impossibly idealistic that she, um, isn't real.

On to the blindfolded, torch-carrying part—sounds a lot like justice, doesn't it? Maybe. Some people think this image is about blind Europe trying to bring light to Africa, which would fit in with Kurtz's whole grand imperialist theme. One thing we're sure of: carrying a torch while blindfolded sounds like a real fire hazard.

Which, come to think of it, might just be Conrad's point.

God Imagery

Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory

In the "Character Analysis" for both Marlow and Kurtz we talked about how Conrad compares both men to gods. But it's not that simple. (We hope that doesn't come as a surprise.)

So, let's try to unpack this. Marlow is like a Buddha who, last time we checked, was an enlightening teacher-figure. Kurtz, on the other hand, is described as a lightning and fire Jupiter figure. Jupiter was a little more prone to the negative human emotions of jealousy, vengeance, and ambition. So right away, the god imagery allows us to differentiate between our two big characters.

But it doesn't end there. Interestingly, Marlow calls the white men on the ship "pilgrims." Like the Puritans at Plymouth Rock, remember that "pilgrim" is a word for people embarking on a religious journey for spiritual reasons. This may just be ironic, since altruistic enlightenment was one of the supposed motives for England's imperialistic forays into Africa. Or the label of "pilgrim" may just infuse the tale with a spiritual undercurrent, making Marlow's discussions of darkness and light sound religious. Take your pick. Or come up with a new idea!